Cochineal and its environmental impact

La cochinilla y su repercusión medioambiental

Verónica Baque Escobar

Boris Alfredo Alvarado Salazar

Abstract: Pest infestations impact the natural environment, hinder

agricultural development and generate economic losses at the national

level. The objective is to understand how the presence and

proliferation of the mealybug impacts ecosystems and environmental

health. For the sample, three study theses were used that provided an

in-depth vision of the impact of the pests, a mixed type of research

was applied with the documentary review technique and the

instrument used was the data collection form. In conclusion, the

results of the studies highlight the importance of assessing the

environmental impact of pests such as mealybugs on agriculture and

the natural environment. According to the authors, this underlines the

urgency of adopting more sustainable and responsible pest

management practices to protect the health of ecosystems and

promote biodiversity conservation.

Keywords: Cochineal, Pest, Environment, Biodiversity

Resumen: Las infestaciones de plagas tienen un impacto en el

entorno natural, obstaculizan el desarrollo de la agricultura y generan

pérdidas económicas a nivel nacional. El objetivo es comprender

cómo la presencia y proliferación de la cochinilla impacta en los

ecosistemas y en la salud del medio ambiente. Para la muestra se

utilizó tres tesis de estudio que proporcionaron una visión en

profundidad del impacto de las plagas, se aplicó un tipo de

investigación mixta con la técnica de revisión documental y el

instrumento utilizado fue la ficha de recolección de datos. En

conclusión los resultados de los estudios resaltan la importancia de

evaluar el impacto medioambiental de plagas como la cochinilla en la

agricultura y el medio natural. Según los autores esto subraya la

urgencia de adoptar prácticas de manejo de plagas más sostenibles y

responsables para proteger la salud de los ecosistemas y fomentar la

conservación de la biodiversidad.

Palabras clave: Cochinilla, Plaga, Medio, Ambiente, Biodiversidad

1 Msc., Instituto Superior Tecnológico

Universitario Espíritu Santo,

https://orcid.org/0009-0001-2610-3812

vbaque@tes.edu.ec

2 Msc., Instituto Superior Tecnológico

Universitario Espíritu Santo,

https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5256-679X

baalvarado3@tes.edu.ec

Published

Instituto Tecnológico Superior Edwards

Deming. Quito – Ecuador

Periodicity

January-March

Vol. 1, Num. 21, 2024

pp. 42-56

http://centrosuragraria.com/index.php/revista

Dates of receipt

Received: December 09, 2023

Approved: Febrary 09, 2024

Correspondence author

vbaque@tes.edu.ec

Creative Commons License

Creative Commons License, Attribution-

NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0

International.https://creativecommons.org/lice

nses/by-nc-sa/4.0/deed.es

April - June vol. 1. Num. 21 – 2024

Introduction

Pests directly and indirectly affect the environment, impede the growth

of agricultural production and produce an economic loss for the

country. Agricultural pests, by attacking crops, can disrupt local

ecosystems by unbalancing the population of plant and animal species.

This can lead to loss of biodiversity by reducing the availability of

habitats and resources for other species, thus affecting the stability and

resilience of the ecosystem as a whole.

Pest control practices often involve the use of chemical pesticides and

herbicides, which can contaminate the soil and affect its long-term

health and fertility. This contamination of the soil can compromise its

ability to support plant and animal life, reducing agricultural

productivity and contributing to environmental degradation.

The constant presence of mealybug remains a challenge, and it is

important to be constantly on the lookout for new strategies and

solutions to keep this pest at bay. In addition, we realize the importance

of adopting more sustainable and environmentally friendly approaches

to pest management, not only for the sake of the plants and business,

but also for the ecosystem.

The mealybug, a widespread agricultural pest, has a significant impact

on the environment due to its ability to damage various crops and

disrupt natural ecosystems. This pest, composed mainly of small insects

that feed on plant sap, can weaken and even kill host plants if not

properly controlled (Hernández, et al., 2019).

This direct damage to crops not only leads to economic losses for

farmers, but also has serious environmental consequences, such as loss

of plant biodiversity and reduced soil quality.

Mealybug control often involves the intensive use of pesticides, which

generates adverse effects on the environment. These chemicals can

contaminate soil and water, affecting the health of terrestrial and aquatic

ecosystems and endangering local biodiversity. Soil contamination can

compromise its fertility and ability to support plant and animal life,

while water pollution can affect the health of aquatic organisms and

drinking water supply systems (Campos, et al., 2023).

Their environmental impact presents significant challenges for

agriculture and biodiversity conservation. It is critical to adopt

Cochineal and its environmental impact

integrated pest management approaches that minimize pesticide use and

promote more sustainable and environmentally friendly agricultural

practices. Doing so can mitigate the negative impact of mealybug on

ecosystems and promote the long-term health and resilience of

agricultural and natural systems.

Mealybug control often involves the intensive use of pesticides, which

can have adverse effects on the environment, such as contamination of

soil, water and biodiversity, creating a significant problem. Mealybug

control is a major problem in agriculture due to its ability to cause

significant damage to crops. To combat this pest, intensive use of

pesticides is frequently used, which can have adverse consequences on

the environment. The analysis of various scientific papers provides a

broader view of this problem and its implications.

The present study focuses on analyzing the results of various scientific

papers related to "mealybug and its environmental impact". The main

objective is to understand in depth how the presence and proliferation

of the mealybug impacts ecosystems and the health of the environment

in general. To achieve this goal, the findings and conclusions of

previous research conducted in different regions of the world will be

examined in detail, addressing key aspects such as the effect of

mealybugs on local biodiversity, the dynamics of agricultural

ecosystems where they are present, as well as the potential risks to

human health derived from their presence.

Through the compilation and exhaustive analysis of the existing

scientific literature, we seek to identify common patterns and trends in

the relationship between the mealybug and its environment. This will

allow not only to better understand the factors that influence the

proliferation of this pest, but also to evaluate the effectiveness of control

strategies used to date. In addition, possible sustainable solutions and

preventive measures that can mitigate the negative impacts of mealybug

on the environment will be explored, thus contributing to the

conservation of biodiversity and the promotion of more

environmentally friendly agricultural practices.

Ultimately, this analysis of previous research results on mealybug and

its environmental impact is intended to provide a solid basis for future

studies and actions aimed at addressing this problem in a

comprehensive and sustainable manner. By better understanding the

April - June vol. 1. Num. 21 – 2024

effects of mealybug on the environment, more effective management

strategies and conservation policies can be developed that promote a

proper balance between crop protection and preservation of the natural

environment.

The outcome analysis study on "Mealybug and its environmental

impact" is relevant for several fundamental reasons. First, a thorough

understanding of how the presence and proliferation of mealybug

affects ecosystems and the health of the environment in general is

essential for taking effective conservation measures. By knowing the

specific impacts of this pest on different components of the natural

environment, decision makers can implement appropriate policies and

management practices that minimize its negative effects and promote

environmental health.

In addition, it is crucial to address the intensive use of pesticides in

mealybug control because of their adverse effects on the environment.

Contamination of soil, water and biodiversity as a result of

indiscriminate pesticide use represents a significant threat to terrestrial

and aquatic ecosystems. The loss of biodiversity and the disruption of

natural cycles can have long-term consequences on the stability of

ecosystems and the ability of the environment to provide essential

ecological services for human life and the health of the planet.

Therefore, discussing the use of pesticides in mealybug control and

their effects on the environment is important to promote more

sustainable and nature-friendly agriculture. Promoting alternatives to

the use of chemical pesticides, such as biological control methods or

integrated farming practices, can help reduce environmental pollution

and protect biodiversity. In addition, highlighting these issues can raise

awareness of the importance of adopting more responsible agricultural

practices and promote a holistic approach to environmental

conservation.

UC IPM (2024) defines mealybugs as immobile insects that extract

plant juices from many types of trees, shrubs and houseplants (...)

Infestations of these insects can cause premature yellowing or dropping

of leaves, sticky honeydew and black sooty mold.

Arguing to the author's point, by extracting essential nutrients from a

wide variety of trees, shrubs and houseplants, mealybugs can cause a

number of problems, such as premature yellowing or dropping of

leaves. In addition, the secretion of sticky honeydew by these insects

Cochineal and its environmental impact

can lead to the formation of black sooty mold, which further aggravates

plant damage. This argument underscores the importance of controlling

mealybug infestations to protect the health and vitality of crops and

vegetative landscapes.

In the project on the school garden as a pedagogical tool for students'

environmental awareness (Gutiérrez, M., 2020). To treat the mealybug,

the children applied sunflower oil on the affected leaves and a sign was

placed to identify that the area had been treated.

The project exemplifies a practical and educational approach to pest

control, in this case, the mealybug. By involving children in the

application of sunflower oil on affected leaves, it promotes an active

understanding of the problem and a practical, environmentally friendly

solution. In addition, the use of an identifying sign to indicate that the

area was treated not only serves as a safety measure, but also promotes

awareness of environmental stewardship and the importance of taking

responsible measures to control pests in an effective and sustainable

manner.

The integrated pest program implemented the use of Sticky Cards to

Monitor Insects in Greenhouses. Schadt, (2022), Red and white mites,

mealybugs, scale and wingless aphids cannot fly, so they will not be

trapped on sticky cards as well as immature stages of thrips and

whiteflies.

Noting that certain pests such as red and white mites, mealybugs, scale

insects and wingless aphids cannot fly, highlights the usefulness of the

sticky cards for trapping and controlling these flightless insects. In

addition, by mentioning that immature stages of thrips and whiteflies

will also not be trapped on the cards, a clear view of the limitations and

scope of this monitoring technique is provided, allowing for more

accurate and effective pest management in greenhouses.

Principle of the form

The author Ascencio, D. (2021) mentions that this species is known as

grana or cochinilla silvestre, is the most recurrent pest of nopal verdura

in San Luis Potosí. For several years, predators with similar

characteristics to coccinellids have been observed attacking the wild

cochineal in chemical-free plots.

April - June vol. 1. Num. 21 – 2024

According to the author, this insect has become the most recurrent pest

in the region, which represents a significant threat to local agricultural

production. However, the author points out an encouraging

development: the observation of predators with coccinellid-like

characteristics attacking wild mealybugs in chemical-free plots. This

finding suggests that natural solutions exist to control this pest, which

may open new opportunities to reduce reliance on chemical pesticides

and promote more sustainable and environmentally friendly

agricultural practices.

Principle of the form

The corticola mealybug Matsucoccus feytaudi Duc., (...) whose action

on pine trees is evidenced by a very characteristic bark stripping, which

takes on a powdery form. This insect has been recorded in other events

of weakening and death of the species (Alvarez, et al. J., 2020). This

description highlights the seriousness of the damage that this pest can

cause to pine trees, which could lead to the weakening and even death

of the affected species.

The fact that this insect has been recorded in other pine weakening and

death events, according to Alvarez et al. (2020), further underscores the

importance of effectively addressing this pest to protect the health and

vitality of pine forests. This argument highlights the need for pest

control and management actions to prevent and mitigate the negative

impacts of corticollary mealybug on forest ecosystems.

Principle of the form

De Francia, J., & Ayerbe, C., (2006), mention that the lack of market

reaction to the environmental certification of companies is more

interesting if we compare it with the adverse reaction of the market to

the certification of moderately polluting companies and non-

internationalized companies.

The comparison with the adverse market reaction to the certification of

moderately polluting and non-internationalized companies further

highlights this phenomenon. This suggests that, despite the growing

interest in environmental sustainability, the market may not adequately

value companies' environmental certification initiatives. This argument

raises important questions about the perception and value attributed to

environmental responsibility by consumers and stakeholders, and

Cochineal and its environmental impact

highlights the need for greater awareness and understanding of the

importance of environmental certification in the business context.

Principle of the form

In addition to the environmental repercussions arising from the need for

regulated water, other important environmental impacts include

salinization and nitrate contamination of drainage water and its

potential impact on receiving systems (rivers and aquifers), which may

limit its agricultural, urban industrial and ecological use (Causapé, J.,

et al., 2002). The authors highlight the important environmental

repercussions associated with the need to regulate water supply. In

addition to water regulation, other significant environmental impacts

are identified, such as salinization and nitrate contamination of drainage

waters.

These conditions can have a negative impact on receiving systems, such

as rivers and aquifers, which in turn can limit their use for agricultural,

industrial, urban and ecological purposes. This argument highlights the

complexity of environmental problems related to water supply and

underlines the importance of addressing them in a holistic manner to

ensure the sustainability of water resources and the health of aquatic

ecosystems.

Materials and methods

The present study on "cochineal and its environmental impact"

employed a mixed research approach that combined qualitative and

quantitative methods to obtain a complete understanding of the issue.

The study began with a document review technique, where the

researchers collected a wide variety of scientific documents related to

mealybug and its impact on the environment.

These documents included field studies, literature reviews and

academic articles that addressed different aspects of the problem. To

organize the large amount of information collected, the scientists used

data collection sheets, which allowed them to systematically record key

findings from each document, such as pest control methods used,

environmental effects observed, and recommendations to mitigate

negative impacts.

April - June vol. 1. Num. 21 – 2024

Once the information was collected and organized, the researchers

selected three study theses that provided an in-depth view of the impact

of pests on the environment. These theses became the primary sample

for the study, and the scientists closely analyzed their results to identify

common patterns and trends in relation to mealybug and other types of

agricultural pests. Through this analysis, they were able to gain a more

complete understanding of how the presence and proliferation of

mealybug affects ecosystems and the health of the environment in

general.

3. Result

In the project and research on the "Evaluation of three organic

insecticides in the control of Cochineal Scale (Dysmicoccus texensis)

in the banana crop (Musa spp.) Williams variety in the rainy season in

the La Maná area"; Moreira Alay, C. E. (2017). As main results they

indicated that growth and pseudostem enlargement were more

pronounced in plants treated with New Bt, showing an increase of 30.58

cm and 3.42 cm in height and diameter of the pseudostem, respectively.

In contrast, the other two insecticides, Cochibiol and Neem-x, resulted

in a decrease in plant height, ranging from 2.90 cm to 4.48 cm, and a

widening of the pseudostem between 0.16 cm and 0.27 cm, below the

values observed with New Bt. These findings suggest a lower

interference of D texensis in the development of plants treated with

New Bt. In addition, it was identified that, for every 10 mealybugs

present on a banana plant, pseudostem growth decreased by 0.30 cm,

while its enlargement was reduced by 0.07 cm.

This study proved to be more effective in promoting pseudostem

growth and enlargement on treated banana plants compared to

Cochibiol and Neem-x insecticides. This finding suggests that the use

of New Bt could be a promising option to control mealybug in banana

crops, as it favors better plant development and, therefore, higher

productivity.

The study provides significant evidence on the efficacy of different

organic insecticides in the control of mealybug in banana crops. These

findings have important implications for sustainable agriculture, as they

suggest that the use of certain insecticides can improve crop yields

while minimizing negative impacts on the environment and human

health.

Cochineal and its environmental impact

In the study by Mansilla, C. (2017). on the environmental impact of

pesticide application in seven horticultural socio-productive models of

the Green Belt of Mendoza; among his results, he mentions that, the

environmental trajectory of pesticides is presented as a complex

process, since once applied, their interaction with soil and water is

influenced by a series of simultaneous physicochemical and biological

reactions. These include water solubility, biodegradation capacity,

affinity for soil colloids and the tendency to leach into groundwater, all

of which define their fate in the different compartments of the

environmental matrix, as well as their persistence. In order to elucidate

some of these characteristics, five key parameters have been identified,

including the solubility of the pesticide in water at 20°C and the half-

life or half-life in soil.

The identification of five key parameters, such as pesticide solubility in

water and half-life in soil, provides a solid basis for a better

understanding of how these chemical compounds interact with the

agricultural environment and their environmental impacts. This

methodological approach allows for a more accurate assessment of the

environmental risk associated with pesticide use, which can be critical

for pesticide management decisions and the adoption of more

sustainable agricultural practices.

This study highlights the importance of considering the complexity of

the environmental trajectory of pesticides in assessing their

environmental impact in horticultural systems. These findings have

significant implications for pesticide management and environmental

protection, as they provide crucial information for improving the

efficiency and sustainability of agricultural practices.

In the evaluation of substrates of vegetable nature, for the maintenance

of mealybugs in the study by Solera, K. (2017), the mortality

percentages of mealybugs using the three vegetable substrates (chayote,

sweet potato and tacaco) in a time period of 15 days are presented.

Significant differences between treatments were only found on the

fifteenth day after the insects were placed on the vegetables; at this time,

chayote presented lower percentages of mealybug mortality (44.4%),

compared to sweet potato (66.7%) and tacaco (74.4%).

This analysis reveals the importance of selecting the right substrate to

maintain mealybug viability in a laboratory setting or in research

April - June vol. 1. Num. 21 – 2024

studies. The findings indicate that chayote may not be the most effective

substrate for maintaining mealybugs, as it resulted in lower mortality of

these insects compared to sweet potato and tacaco. This information is

relevant for future research on pest control and mealybug biology, as it

highlights the influence of substrate on the survival and behavior of

these insects.

The studies conducted by the previous authors, Moreira Alay, C. E.

(2017), Mansilla, C. (2017), and Solera, K. (2017), provide a

comprehensive view on the environmental impact of mealybugs and

other pests in different agricultural contexts. Although each study

addresses specific aspects of the relationship between pests and the

environment, they all agree on the importance of understanding and

mitigating the negative effects of these pests on natural ecosystems.

The study by Moreira Alay, C. E. (2017) focuses on evaluating the

efficacy of organic insecticides in the control of mealybug in banana

cultivation. While this approach focuses on pest management at the

agricultural level, the choice of organic insecticides suggests a concern

for minimizing negative impacts on the environment. This study

highlights the need to adopt more sustainable agricultural practices to

reduce soil and water pollution, as well as to protect biodiversity.

On the other hand, the work of Mansilla, C. (2017) focuses on the

environmental impact of pesticide application in different horticultural

socio-productive models. This study highlights the complexity of the

environmental trajectory of pesticides and highlights the importance of

considering factors such as water solubility and biodegradation capacity

when assessing their environmental impact. The findings of this study

underscore the need to implement more effective and environmentally

friendly pest management strategies.

In addition, the study by Solera, K. (2017) provides valuable

information on the use of plant substrates in mealybug maintenance.

Although this study focuses on more specific aspects of mealybug

biology, its relevance lies in highlighting the importance of selecting

suitable substrates to minimize the negative impact of pests on the

environment.

Finally, all three studies highlight the importance of considering the

environmental impact of pests such as mealybugs on agriculture and the

natural environment. These findings underscore the need for more

Cochineal and its environmental impact

sustainable and responsible approaches to pest management to protect

ecosystem health and promote biodiversity conservation.

Following the analysis of results and the authors' discussion, it is

appropriate to open up questions that will allow research to be

developed from the findings so it is essential to consider: What are the

main agricultural practices associated with mealybug control and how

do they affect the environment; What alternative pest control methods

are effective in reducing mealybug populations without harming the

environment; What integrated pest management measures are most

effective in controlling mealybug populations and minimizing their

environmental impact; What integrated pest management measures are

most effective in controlling mealybug populations and minimizing

their environmental impact; What are the best ways to control mealybug

populations and minimize their environmental impact? And finally,

what environmental restoration strategies are most effective in

mitigating the damage caused by mealybug infestations in affected

ecosystems?

4. Conclusions

Studies address different aspects related to the environmental impact of

pests such as mealybugs, from insecticide efficacy to pest biology and

the environmental trajectory of pesticides. This diversity of approaches

highlights the need for collaboration among diverse disciplines, such as

entomology, agronomy, and ecology, to better understand and

comprehensively address environmental problems related to

agricultural pests.

All studies emphasize the need to adopt more sustainable and

environmentally friendly agricultural practices to mitigate the impact of

pests on natural ecosystems. This includes the use of organic pesticides,

integrated pest management and proper selection of plant substrates,

among other strategies. These practices can help reduce soil and water

pollution, protect biodiversity and promote healthy agricultural and

natural ecosystems.

While the studies provide valuable information on the environmental

impact of pests and control strategies, they also point to the need for

further research and improvement of existing agricultural practices.

This includes evaluating new pest control techniques, identifying more

April - June vol. 1. Num. 21 – 2024

sustainable alternatives to chemical pesticides, and gaining a deeper

understanding of the ecology and biology of pests and their interaction

with the environment.

In Conclusion, the studies underscore the importance of

comprehensively and collaboratively addressing environmental

problems related to agricultural pests, and highlight the need to adopt

more sustainable and responsible agricultural practices to protect

ecosystem health and ensure long-term food security.

References

Álvarez, J. R. G., de Dios, M. G., Risueño, A. M., Picón, F. A., Milán,

F. G., Sanz, B. N., ... & Anguita, A. S. (2020). La cochinilla

corticícola Matsucoccus feytaudi Ducasse, 1941 y su papel en el

decaimiento de Pinus pinaster Aiton en el Parque Natural de la

Sierra de Baza (Granada, Andalucía, España). Cuadernos de la

Sociedad Española de Ciencias Forestales, (46), 83-102.

Recuperado de:

https://dialnet.unirioja.es/descarga/articulo/8073495.pdf

Ascencio Contreras, D. O. (2021). Coccinélidos como enemigos

naturales de Dactylopius opuntiae (Cockerell) (Doctoral

dissertation, Universidad Autónoma de Nuevo León). Recuperado

de: http://eprints.uanl.mx/20997/1/1080314501.pdf

Buitrago Cuellar, J. M., & Suárez Abella, P. A. (2021). Revisión

documental: dinámica de la inclusión laboral en personas con

discapacidad motriz. Recuperado de:

http://repositoriodspace.unipamplona.edu.co/jspui/bitstream/20.5

00.12744/5048/1/Buitrago_Su%C3%A1rez_2020_TG.pdf

CAUSAPÉ VALENZUELA, J., Quílez, D., & Aragüés, R. (2002).

Repercusiones medioambientales de la agricultura sobre los

recursos hídricos de la Comunidad de Regantes nº V de Bardenas

(Zaragoza) (Doctoral dissertation, Tesis Doctoral. Universidad de

Zaragoza, 53 págs. Zaragoza). Recuperado de:

https://zaguan.unizar.es/record/3213/files/TESIS-2009-046.pdf

Cruz Ordinola, K. M. (2019). Análisis de la protección medio ambiental.

Recuperado de:

https://www.ucipfg.com/Repositorio/MAES/MAES-

07/BLOQUE-ACADEMICO/Unidad-3/lecturas/ACV_GA.pdf

De Francia, J. C., & Ayerbe, C. G. (2006). Repercusión económica de

la certificación medioambiental ISO 14001. Cuadernos de

gestión, 6(1), 45-62. Recuperado de:

https://www.redalyc.org/pdf/2743/274320225003.pdf

Cochineal and its environmental impact

De Paz, D. C. (2008). Conceptos y técnicas de recolección de datos en

la investigación jurídico social. Recuperado de: http://www.

geocities. ws/jusbaniz/faseI/tesis/tecnicas1. pdf, 189-212.

Recuperado de:

https://egov.ufsc.br/portal/sites/default/files/anexos/12542-

12543-1-PB.pdf

Gonzáles, J. L. (2020). Técnicas e instrumentos de investigación

científica. Arequipa, Arequipa, Perú. Recuperado de:

https://gc.scalahed.com/recursos/files/r161r/w26118w/Tecnicas

%20e%20instrumentos.pdf

Gordillo, E. G. (2015). Historia de la educación mixta y su difusión en

la educación formal occidental. Revista Historia de la educación

latinoamericana, 17(25), 107-124. Recuperado de:

http://www.scielo.org.co/scielo.php?pid=S0122-

72382015000200007&script=sci_arttext

Gutiérrez Sánchez-Osorio, M. L. (2020). El huerto escolar: una

herramienta pedagógica para la conciencia medioambiental del

alumnado. Recuperado de:

https://digitum.um.es/digitum/bitstream/10201/91775/1/reif2_3.p

Hernández-Pérez, R., Bravo-Silva, G., Martínez-Martínez, J.,

Hernández, Á. G., & Pedraza, T. D. J. R. (2019). Evaluación de la

efectividad biológica de bioinsecticida para el control de

cochinilla silvestre (Dactylopius opuntiae Cockerell), en nopal

(Opuntia ficus-indica (L.) Mill.), en Totolapan, Morelos,

México. Revista Chilena de Entomología, 45(1). Recuperado de:

https://www.biotaxa.org/rce/article/download/46594/40227

Mansilla Ferro, C. F. (2017). Impacto ambiental de la aplicación de

plaguicidas en siete modelos socio-productivos hortícolas del

Cinturón Verde de Mendoza (Doctoral dissertation, Universidad

Nacional de Cuyo. Facultad de Ciencias Agrarias). Recuperado

de: Impacto (uncu.edu.ar)

Moreira Alay, C. E. (2017). Evaluación de tres insecticidas orgánicos

en el control de Cochinilla (Dysmicoccus texensis) en el cultivo

de banano (Musa spp.) variedad Williams en la época lluviosa en

la zona La Maná. Recuperado de:

https://repositorio.uteq.edu.ec/bitstream/43000/3270/1/T-UTEQ-

0104.pdf

Rojas Heredia, P. A. Análisis económico entre dos sistemas de

producción tradicional y el manejo integrado de plagas, en el

April - June vol. 1. Num. 21 – 2024

municipio de Mecapaca del departamento de La Paz (Doctoral

dissertation). Recuperado de:

https://repositorio.umsa.bo/bitstream/handle/123456789/23275/T

-940.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y

Schadt, Susan. (2022). para Monitorear, U. D. T. A., & en Invernaderos,

I. Programa de Manejo Integrado de Plagas. Recuperado de:

https://ipm.cahnr.uconn.edu/wp-

content/uploads/sites/3216/2022/11/USODET1.pdf

Solera González, K. G. (2017). Desarrollo de una metodología para la

evaluación de la patogenicidad y selección in vitro de hongos

entomopatógenos y sus metabolitos para el manejo de

Psudococcus elisae (Hemíptera: pseudococcidae) en banano

(musa AAA). Recuperado de:

https://repositorio.una.ac.cr/bitstream/handle/11056/14571/Tesis.

pdf?sequence=1

UC IPM. (2024). Notas Breves: Cochinillas. Universidad de California

Agricultura Y Recursos Naturales. Recuperado de:

https://ipm.ucanr.edu/legacy_assets/pdf/qtsp/qtspscales.pdf

Vargas, A. Y. (2008). Impacto ambiental y metodologías de

análisis. Biocyt: Biología, Ciencia y Tecnología, 1(1), 7-15.

Recuperado de:

https://dialnet.unirioja.es/descarga/articulo/3621187.pdf

Yarza, F. S. (2010). Medio ambiente y derechos

fundamentales (Doctoral dissertation, Universidad de Navarra).

Recuperado de:

https://dialnet.unirioja.es/servlet/tesis?codigo=188987

Zepeda-Jazo, I. (2018). Manejo sustentable de plagas agrícolas en

México. Agricultura, sociedad y desarrollo, 15(1), 99-108.

Recuperado de:

https://www.scielo.org.mx/scielo.php?pid=S1870-

54722018000100099&script=sci_arttext